Keywords

Conspiracy theories, correction methods, COVID-19, audience, China-United States relation, media influence

Abstract

Among the burgeoning discussions on the argumentative styles of conspiracy theories and the related cognitive processes of their audiences, research thus far is limited in regard to developing methods and strategies that could effectively debunk conspiracy theories and reduce the harmful influences of conspiracist media exposure. The present study critically evaluates the effectiveness of five approaches to reducing conspiratorial belief, through experiments (N=607) conducted on Amazon Mechanical Turk. Our results demonstrate that the content-based methods of counter conspiracy theory can partly mitigate conspiratorial belief. Specifically, the science- and fact-focused corrections were able to effectively mitigate conspiracy beliefs, whereas media literacy and inoculation strategies did not produce significant change. More crucially, our findings illustrate that both audience-focused methods, which involve decoding the myth of conspiracy theory and re-imagining intergroup relationships, were effective in reducing the cognitive acceptance of conspiracy theory. Building on these insights, this study contributes to a systematic examination of different epistemic means to influence (or not) conspiracy beliefs -an urgent task in the face of the infodemic threat apparent both during and after the COVID-19 pandemic.

View infography

References

Abalakina-Paap, M., Stephan, W.G., Craig, T., & Gregory, W.L. (1999). Beliefs in conspiracies. Political Psychology, 20(3), 637-647. https://doi.org/10.1111/0162-895X.00160

Link DOI | Link Google Scholar

Aistrope, T., & Bleiker, R. (2018). Conspiracy and foreign policy. Security Dialogue, 49(3), 165-182. https://doi.org/10.1177/0967010617748305

Link DOI | Link Google Scholar

Aufderheide, P. (1993). Media Literacy. A Report of the National Leadership Conference on Media Literacy. [Conference] Aspen Institute, Washington, DC, United States. https://bit.ly/3y34w63

Link Google Scholar

Baden, C., & Sharon, T. (2020). Blinded by the lies? Toward an integrated definition of conspiracy theories. Communication Theory, 31(1), 82-106. https://doi.org/10.1093/ct/qtaa023

Link DOI | Link Google Scholar

Banas, J.A., & Miller, G. (2013). Inducing resistance to conspiracy theory propaganda: Testing inoculation and metainoculation strategies. Human Communication Research, 39(2), 184-207. https://doi.org/10.1111/hcre.12000

Link DOI | Link Google Scholar

Banas, J.A., & Rains, S.A. (2010). A meta-analysis of research on inoculation theory. Communication Monographs, 77(3), 281-311. https://doi.org/10.1080/03637751003758193

Link DOI | Link Google Scholar

Bartlett, J., & Miller, C. (2010). The Power of Unreason: Conspiracy theories, extremism and counter-terrorism. Demos.

Link Google Scholar

Bjerg, O., & Presskorn-Thygesen, T. (2017). Conspiracy theory: Truth claim or language game? Theory, Culture & Society, 34(1), 137-159. https://doi.org/10.1177/0263276416657880

Link DOI | Link Google Scholar

Buckland, M. (2017). Information and society. The MIT Press. https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/10922.001.0001

Link DOI | Link Google Scholar

Chan, M.P.S., Jones, C.R., Hall-Jamieson, K., & Albarracín, D. (2017). Debunking: A meta-analysis of the psychological efficacy of messages countering misinformation. Psychological science, 28(11), 1531-1546. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797617714579

Link DOI | Link Google Scholar

Cook, J., & Lewandowsky, S. (2011). The debunking handbook. University of Queensland. https://bit.ly/3ezLFI4

Link Google Scholar

Craft, S., Ashley, S., & Maksl, A. (2017). News media literacy and conspiracy theory endorsement. Communication and the Public, 2(4), 388-401. https://doi.org/10.1177/2057047317725539

Link DOI | Link Google Scholar

Drochon, H. (2018). Who believes in conspiracy theories in Great Britain and Europe? In J.E. Uscinski (Ed.), Conspiracy theories and the people who believe them (pp. 337-346). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190844073.003.0022

Link DOI | Link Google Scholar

Einstein, K.L., & Glick, D.M. (2015). Do I think BLS data are BS? The consequences of conspiracy theories. Political Behavior, 37(3), 679-701. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11109-014-9287-z

Link DOI | Link Google Scholar

Fenster, M. (1999). Conspiracy Theories: Secrecy and power in American culture. University of Minnesota Press. https://bit.ly/33yuNv4

Link Google Scholar

Golob, T., Makarovi, M., & Rek, M. (2021). Meta-reflexivity for resilience against disinformation. [Meta-reflexividad para la resiliencia contra la desinformación]. Comunicar, 66, 107-118. https://doi.org/10.3916/C66-2021-09

Link DOI | Link Google Scholar

Hofstadter, R. (1965). The paranoid style in American politics and other essays. Alfred A. Knopf, Inc. https://bit.ly/3eBC7fJ

Link Google Scholar

Hollander, B.A. (2018). Partisanship, individual differences, and news media exposure as predictors of conspiracy beliefs. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 95(3), 691-713. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077699017728919

Link DOI | Link Google Scholar

Husting, G., & Orr, M. (2007). Dangerous machinery: ‘Conspiracy theorist’ as a transpersonal strategy of exclusion. Symbolic Interaction, 30(2), 127-150. https://doi.org/10.1525/si.2007.30.2.127

Link DOI | Link Google Scholar

Jeong, S.H., Cho, H., & Hwang, Y. (2012). Media literacy interventions: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Communication, 62(3), 454-472. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2012.01643.x

Link DOI | Link Google Scholar

Jolley, D., & Douglas, K.M. (2014). The effects of anti-vaccine conspiracy theories on vaccination intentions. PLoS ONE, 9(2), e89177. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0089177

Link DOI | Link Google Scholar

Jones, L. (2008). A geopolitical mapping of the post-9/11 world: Exploring conspiratorial knowledge through Fahrenheit 9/11 and The Manchurian Candidate. Journal of Media Geography, 111, 44-50. https://bit.ly/3f4MSWW

Link Google Scholar

Jones-Jang, S.M., Mortensen, T., & Liu, J. (2021). Does media literacy help identification of fake news? Information literacy helps, but other literacies don’t. American Behavioral Scientist, 65(2), 371-388. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764219869406

Link DOI | Link Google Scholar

Jutila, M. (2006). Desecuritizing minority rights: Against determinism. Security Dialogue, 37(2), 167-185. https://doi.org/10.1177/0967010606066169

Link DOI | Link Google Scholar

Karstedt, S., & Farrall, S. (2006). The moral economy of everyday crime: Markets, consumers and citizens. British Journal of Criminology, 46(6), 1011-1036. https://doi.org/10.1093/bjc/azl082

Link DOI | Link Google Scholar

Kofta, M., & Sedek, G. (2005). Conspiracy stereotypes of Jews during systemic transformation in Poland. International Journal of Sociology, 35(1), 40-64. https://doi.org/10.1080/00207659.2005.11043142

Link DOI | Link Google Scholar

Krekó, P. (2020). Countering conspiracy theories and misinformation. In M. Butter & P. Knight, P. (Eds.), Routledge Handbook of Conspiracy Theories (pp.242-256). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429452734-2_8

Link DOI | Link Google Scholar

LaGarde, J., & Hudgins, D. (2018). Fact vs. Fiction: Teaching critical thinking skills in the age of fake news. International Society for Technology in Education.

Link Google Scholar

Lee, B. (2020). Radicalization and Conspiracy Theories. In M. Butter, & P. Knight (Eds.) Routledge Handbook of Conspiracy Theories. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429452734-3_7

Link DOI | Link Google Scholar

McGuire, W.J., & Papageorgis, D. (1962). Effectiveness of forewarning in developing resistance to persuasion. Public Opinion Quarterly, 26, 24-34. https://doi.org/10.1086/267068

Link DOI | Link Google Scholar

Mitchell, S.S.D. (2019). Population control, deadly vaccines, and mutant mosquitoes: The construction and circulation of Zika virus conspiracy theories online. Canadian Journal of Communication, 44(2), 211-237. https://doi.org/10.22230/cjc.2019v44n2a3329

Link DOI | Link Google Scholar

Mora-Rodríguez, A., & Melero-López, I. (2021). News consumption and risk perception of Covid-19 in Spain. [Seguimiento informativo y percepción del riesgo ante la Covid-19 en España]. Comunicar, 66, 71-81. https://doi.org/10.3916/C66-2021-06

Link DOI | Link Google Scholar

Mutsvairo, B., & Bebawi, S. (2019). Journalism educators, regulatory realities, and pedagogical predicaments of the “fake news” era: A comparative perspective on the middle east and Africa. Journalism & Mass Communication Educator, 74(2), 143-157. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077695819833552

Link DOI | Link Google Scholar

Oliver, J.E., & Wood, T.J. (2014). Conspiracy theories and the paranoid style(s) of mass opinion. American Journal of Political Science, 58(4), 952-966. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajps.12084

Link DOI | Link Google Scholar

Potter, W.J. (2010). The state of media literacy. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 54(4), 675-696. https://doi.org/10.1080/08838151.2011.521462

Link DOI | Link Google Scholar

Roe, P. (2004). Securitization and minority rights: Conditions of de-securitization. Security Dialogue, 35(3), 279-294. https://doi.org/10.1177/0967010604047527

Link DOI | Link Google Scholar

Roozenbeek, J., & van-der-Linden, S. (2019). The fake news game: Actively inoculating against the risk of misinformation. Journal of Risk Research, 22(5), 570-580. https://doi.org/10.1080/13669877.2018.1443491

Link DOI | Link Google Scholar

Samuel-Azran, T., & Hayat, T. (2019). Online news recommendations credibility: The tie is mightier than the source. [La credibilidad de las noticias digitales: El vínculo es más impactante que la fuente]. Comunicar, 60, 71-80. https://doi.org/10.3916/C60-2019-07

Link DOI | Link Google Scholar

Sidak, Z. (1967). Rectangular confidence regions for the means of multivariate normal distributions. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 62(318), 626-633. https://doi.org/10.2307/2283989

Link DOI | Link Google Scholar

Simmons, W.P., & Parsons, S. (2005). Beliefs in conspiracy theories among African Americans: A comparison of elites and masses. Social Science Quarterly, 86(3), 582-598. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0038-4941.2005.00319.x

Link DOI | Link Google Scholar

Swami, V. (2012). Social psychological origins of conspiracy theories: The case of the Jewish conspiracy theory in Malaysia. Frontiers in Psychology, 3, 1-9. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00280

Link DOI | Link Google Scholar

Turner, R.N., Hewstone, M., & Voci, A. (2007). Reducing explicit and implicit outgroup prejudice via direct and extended contact: The mediating role of self-disclosure and intergroup anxiety. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 93(3), 369–388. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.93.3.369

Link DOI | Link Google Scholar

Uscinski, J.E., & Parent, J.M. (2014). American Conspiracy Theories. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199351800.001.0001

Link DOI | Link Google Scholar

van-Prooijen, J.W., Douglas, K.M., & De-Inocencio, C. (2018). Connecting the dots: Illusory pattern perception predicts belief in conspiracies and the supernatural. European Journal of Social Psychology, 48(3), 320-335. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2331

Link DOI | Link Google Scholar

Walter, N., & Tukachinsky, R. (2020). A meta-analytic examination of the continued influence of misinformation in the face of correction: How powerful is it, why does it happen, and how to stop it? Communication Research, 47(2),155-177. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650219854600

Link DOI | Link Google Scholar

Warner, B.R., & Neville-Shepard, R. (2014). Echoes of a conspiracy: Birthers, truthers, and the cultivation of extremism. Communication Quarterly, 62(1), 1-17. https://doi.org/10.1080/01463373.2013.822407

Link DOI | Link Google Scholar

Winiewski, M., Soral, W., & Bilewicz, M. (2015). Conspiracy theories on the map of stereotype content: Survey and historical evidence. In M. Bilewicz, A. Cichocka, & W. Soral (Eds.), The Psychology of Conspiracy (pp. 23-41). Routledge.

Link Google Scholar

Crossmark

Technical information

Received: 16-02-2021

Revised: 19-03-2021

Accepted: 27-04-2021

OnlineFirst: 15-06-2021

Publication date: 01-10-2021

Article revision time: 31 days | Average time revision issue 69: 30 days

Article acceptance time: 69 days | Average time of acceptance issue 69: 68 days

Preprint editing time: 181 days | Average editing time preprint issue 69: 180 days

Article editing time: 226 days | Average editing time issue 69: 225 days

Metrics

Metrics of this article

Views: 12236

Abstract readings: 11163

PDF downloads: 1073

Full metrics of Comunicar 69

Views: 240796

Abstract readings: 211789

PDF downloads: 29007

Cited by

Cites in Web of Science

Oleksy, T; Wnuk, A; (...); Pisula, E. Barriers and facilitators of willingness to vaccinate against COVID-19: Role of prosociality, authoritarianism and conspiracy mentality. A four-wave longitudinal study PERSONALITY AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES, 2022.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2022.111524

Hughes, Brian; White, Kesa; West, Jennifer; Criezis, Meili; Zhou, Cindy; Bartholomew, Sarah; . Cultural Variance in Reception and Interpretation of Social Media COVID-19 Disinformation in French-Speaking Regions INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH, 2021.

https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph182312624

Cernicova-Buca, M and Ciurel, D. Developing Resilience to Disinformation: A Game-Based Method for Future Communicators SUSTAINABILITY , 2022.

https://doi.org/10.3390/su14095438

Diez-Gutierrez, E; Verdeja, M; (...); Macias-Tovar, J. Political hate speech of the far right on Twitter in Latin America COMUNICAR 30 (72), 2022.

https://doi.org/10.3916/C72-2022-08

Guan, TR and Wang, Q. Examining the Democratic Potential of Data Journalism in Curing Misinformation JOURNALISM PRACTICE, 2022.

https://doi.org/10.1080/17512786.2022.2124433

Holden, R and Leigh, A. The race that stopped a nation: lessons from Australia's Covid vaccine failures OXFORD REVIEW OF ECONOMIC POLICY, 2022.

https://doi.org/10.1093/oxrep/grac028

Bam, NE . Strategies to address conspiracy beliefs and misinformation on COVID-19 in South Africa: A narrative literature review HEALTH SA GESONDHEID, 2022.

https://doi.org/10.4102/hsag.v27i0.1851

Dynel, M (Dynel, Marta) ; Zappavigna, M (Zappavigna, Michele). Enacting polyvocal scorn in #CovidConspiracy tweets: The orchestration of voices in humorous responses to COVID-19 conspiracy theories DISCOURSE CONTEXT & MEDIA, 2023.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dcm.2023.100670

Cites in Scopus

Hughes, B., White, K., West, J., (...), Zhou, C., Bartholomew, S. . Cultural variance in reception and interpretation of social media COVID-19 disinformation in French-speaking regions), International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, .

https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph182312624

Oleksy, T., Wnuk, A., Gambin, M., (...), Bargiel-Matusiewicz, K., Pisula, E. . Barriers and facilitators of willingness to vaccinate against COVID-19: Role of prosociality, authoritarianism and conspiracy mentality. A four-wave longitudinal study), Personality and Individual Differences, .

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2022.111524

Cernicova-Buca, M., Ciurel, D. . Developing Resilience to Disinformation: A Game-Based Method for Future Communicators), Sustainability (Switzerland), .

https://doi.org/10.3390/su14095438

Díez-Gutiérrez, Enrique-Javier; Verdeja, María; Sarrión-Andaluz, José; Buendía, Luis; Macías-Tovar, Julián. Political hate speech of the far right on Twitter in Latin America), 2022, .

https://doi.org/10.3916/C72-2022-08

Guan, T., Wang, Q.. Examining the Democratic Potential of Data Journalism in Curing Misinformation), Journalism Practice, .

https://doi.org/10.1080/17512786.2022.2124433

Olivares-Delgado, F., Benlloch-Osuna, M., Rodríguez-Valero, D., Breva-Franch, E.. Corporate Disinformation: Concept and Typology of Forms of Corporate Disinformation), Springer Series in Design and Innovation, .

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-20364-0_46

Bam, N.E. . Strategies to address conspiracy beliefs and misinformation on COVID-19 in South Africa: A narrative literature review ), Health SA Gesondheid, .

https://doi.org/10.4102/hsag.v27i0.1851

Dynel, M., Zappavigna, M.. Enacting polyvocal scorn in #CovidConspiracy tweets: The orchestration of voices in humorous responses to COVID-19 conspiracy theories), Discourse, Context and Media, .

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dcm.2023.100670

Pilch, I., Turska-Kawa, A., Wardawy, P., Olszanecka-Marmola, A., Smołkowska-Jędo, W.. Contemporary trends in psychological research on conspiracy beliefs. A systematic review), Frontiers in Psychology, .

https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1075779

Holden, R., Leigh, A.. The race that stopped a nation: lessons from Australia's Covid vaccine failures), Oxford Review of Economic Policy, .

https://doi.org/10.1093/oxrep/grac028

Hornsey, M.J., Bierwiaczonek, K., Sassenberg, K., Douglas, K.M.. Individual, intergroup and nation-level influences on belief in conspiracy theories), Nature Reviews Psychology, .

https://doi.org/10.1038/s44159-022-00133-0

Herrero-Diz, P., Sánchez-Martín, M., Aguilar, P., Muñiz-Velázquez, J.A.. Adolescents’ vulnerability to disinformation: Its measurement and relationship to critical thinking and moral disengagement), Revista Espanola de Pedagogia, .

https://doi.org/10.22550/REP81-2-2023-04

Arias, D., González Pardo, R.E., Peña, O.C. . Post-truth and fake news in scientific communication in Ibero-American journals), Comunicacion y Sociedad (Mexico), .

https://doi.org/10.32870/cys.v2023.8442

Cites in Google Scholar

Cernicova-Buca, M., & Ciurel, D. (2022). Developing Resilience to Disinformation: A Game-Based Method for Future Communicators. Sustainability, 14(9), 5438.

https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/14/9/5438

Díez-Gutiérrez, E., Verdeja, M., Sarrión-Andaluz, J., Buendía, L., & Macías-Tovar, J. (2022). Discurso político de odio de la ultraderecha desde Twitter en Iberoamérica. Comunicar: Revista Científica de Comunicación y Educación, 30(72).

https://www.revistacomunicar.com/verpdf.php?numero=72&articulo=72-2022-08&idioma=en

Oleksy, T., Wnuk, A., Gambin, M., Łyś, A., Bargiel-Matusiewicz, K., & Pisula, E. (2022). Barriers and facilitators of willingness to vaccinate against COVID-19: Role of prosociality, authoritarianism and conspiracy mentality. A four-wave longitudinal study. Personality and Individual Differences, 111524.

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0191886922000277

Hughes, B., White, K., West, J., Criezis, M., Zhou, C., & Bartholomew, S. (2021). Cultural Variance in Reception and Interpretation of Social Media COVID-19 Disinformation in French-Speaking Regions. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(23), 12624.

https://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/18/23/12624

Díez Gutiérrez, E. J., Verdeja Muñiz, M., Sarrión Andaluz, J., Buendía, L., & Macías Tovar, J. (2022). Discurso político de odio de la ultraderecha desde Twitter en Iberoamérica. Comunicar: revista científica iberoamericana de comunicación y educación.

https://redined.educacion.gob.es/xmlui/handle/11162/224027

Díez-Gutiérrez, E., Verdeja, M., Sarrión-Andaluz, J., & Buendía, L. (2022). Political hate speech of the far right on Twitter in Latin America. Comunicar, 30(72), 101-113.

http://eprints.rclis.org/43432/

Corporate Disinformation: Concept and Typology of Forms of Corporate Disinformation F Olivares-Delgado, M Benlloch-Osuna… - … Conference on Design …, 2023 - Springer

https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-031-20364-0_46

Examining the Democratic Potential of Data Journalism in Curing Misinformation T Guan, Q Wang - Journalism Practice, 2022 - Taylor & Francis

https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/17512786.2022.2124433

Contemporary trends in psychological research on conspiracy beliefs. A systematic review I Pilch, A Turska-Kawa, P Wardawy… - Frontiers in …, 2023 - ncbi.nlm.nih.gov

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9945548/

Individual, intergroup and nation-level influences on belief in conspiracy theories MJ Hornsey, K Bierwiaczonek, K Sassenberg… - Nature Reviews …, 2023 - nature.com

https://www.nature.com/articles/s44159-022-00133-0

Psychological underpinnings of disinformation countermeasures: A systematic scoping review Ziemer C , Rothmund T

https://europepmc.org/article/PPR/PPR578118

The race that stopped a nation: lessons from Australia's Covid vaccine failures R Holden, A Leigh - Oxford Review of Economic Policy, 2022 - academic.oup.com

https://academic.oup.com/oxrep/article-abstract/38/4/818/6896156?login=false

Enacting polyvocal scorn in# CovidConspiracy tweets: The orchestration of voices in humorous responses to COVID-19 conspiracy theories M Dynel, M Zappavigna - Discourse, Context & Media, 2023 - Elsevier

...

Download

Alternative metrics

How to cite

Guan, T., Liu, T., & Yuan, R. (2021). Facing disinformation: Five methods to counter conspiracy theories amid the Covid-19 pandemic. [Combatiendo la desinformación: Cinco métodos para contrarrestar las teorías de conspiración en la pandemia de Covid-19]. Comunicar, 69, 71-83. https://doi.org/10.3916/C69-2021-06

Share

           

Oxbridge Publishing House

4 White House Way

B91 1SE Sollihul United Kingdom

Administration

Editorial office

Creative Commons

This website uses cookies to obtain statistical data on the navigation of its users. If you continue to browse we consider that you accept its use. +info X