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Promoting Mathematical Inclusion in Secondary Education: Detection of Dyscalculia Using the Lizarazu Integral Diagnostic (DIL)

Samuel Joseph Lizarazu Cerón, Sandra Luz Canchola Magdaleno — Wed, 07 Oct 2026 00:00:00 +0000

Low performance in mathematics in secondary education in Mexico is usually attributed to different factors. Dyscalculia is a scarcely studied factor due to the limited availability of tools for its detection. The objective of this study was to identify the prevalence and typology of dyscalculia at the secondary education level through the Lizarazu Integral Diagnostic (DIL), implemented through the website www.discalculiaclub.com. A design-based methodology with a mixed-methods approach was used to evaluate 4,690 students from six public secondary schools in Mexico, where 439 cases (9.36%) of dyscalculia were identified, with ideognostic dyscalculia representing 46.9% of the detected cases. These findings highlight the relevance of advancing toward models of mathematical inclusion grounded in empirical evidence, capable of guiding pedagogical approaches and the design of differentiated intervention strategies within the classroom.

Design of a Virtual Classroom for Language and Literature Focused on Students with SEN

Wed, 07 Oct 2026 00:00:00 +0000

This research focuses on the design of an inclusive virtual classroom for teaching Language and Literature to students with Special Educational Needs (SEN) in upper basic education. Based on a mixed-methods approach, surveys, interviews, and classroom observations were conducted to analyze technological access, teaching practices, and students’ perceptions regarding the use of educational technologies. The findings reveal that, although there is a favorable attitude toward the use of ICT, its effective implementation is hindered by the lack of teacher training, limited methodological adaptation, and connectivity gaps. An inclusive virtual classroom is proposed, grounded in the principles of Universal Design for Learning (UDL), integrating accessible digital resources, inclusive teaching strategies, and differentiated evaluations. The proposal aims to improve academic performance, motivation, and active participation of SEN students, promoting a more equitable and flexible educational environment. This model can be replicated in similar educational contexts and contributes to strengthening digital inclusion within the Ecuadorian education system.

Design Thinking for the Creation of Gamified STEAM+G Environments: A Strategy to Strengthen Scientific and Technological Competencies in Teacher Education

Wed, 07 Oct 2026 00:00:00 +0000

This study aimed to design a gamified learning environment that integrates the STEAM approach with a gender perspective to strengthen scientific and technological competencies in preservice teachers. A mixedmethods approach was adopted, combining quantitative instruments—pre and posttests of scientific competencies—with qualitative techniques, including surveys, focus groups, and cocreation workshops, involving 25 students from Early Childhood Education and Psychopedagogy programs, as well as children from basic education. The design process followed the five phases of Design Thinking: empathize, define, ideate, prototype, and test. The resulting mockup incorporated a central narrative, STEAMthemed characters, sequential missions, and various gamification elements such as badges, rewards, and a progress dashboard. The findings showed improvements in scientific inquiry, explanation of phenomena, and application of knowledge, along with increased motivation, greater sensitivity toward gender equity, and a favorable disposition to implement the strategy in pedagogical practice. The study concludes that integrating gamification, STEAM, and a gender perspective, supported by Design Thinking, constitutes an effective methodological framework for enhancing scientific and technological competencies and promoting inclusive learning environments. Furthermore, the study contributes a governable DT–STEAM+G instructional model and outlines a research agenda oriented toward multicenter studies and mediation and moderation analyses to strengthen its replicability.

Serious Video Games as a Strategy for Teaching and Learning the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in Primary and Secondary Schools in Colombia

Wed, 07 Oct 2026 00:00:00 +0000

The adoption and learning of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) of the 2030 Agenda represent a global challenge, particularly demanding innovative approaches in education systems capable of integrating social, political, environmental, and economic factors. However, in developing countries like Colombia, the teaching and learning of the SDGs is addressed in a scattered, fragmented, and disconnected manner, lacking integration with Industry 4.0 technologies. This creates a series of gaps that reduce the educational potential and limit comprehensive knowledge of the SDGs in educational institutions. In this context, serious games emerge as a promising avenue for addressing these gaps. To develop a serious game as a strategy for teaching and learning the SDGs and to implement it in schools in Colombia. This study employed a mixed-methods research approach with a correlational design from a constructivist perspective. Initially, patents and scientific literature were analyzed to identify trends, gaps, and effective strategies for teaching the SDGs. Based on this analysis, a gamified strategy was designed, which materialized in the development and implementation of the serious game Save the Earth. The strategy was implemented in three Colombian educational institutions, with the participation of 25 teachers and 60 students from rural and urban areas. The intervention demonstrated that the strategy fostered the appropriation of the SDGs and early reflection on personal and environmental behavior. The findings reveal that the implementation of a teaching and learning strategy that uses serious games as a pedagogical tool strengthens the appropriation of the SDGs in complex educational contexts. The use of Save the Earth offers a viable solution, improving student participation and awareness through interactive and reflective learning experiences.

Computational Thinking and Technological Mediation in Vulnerable Early Childhood Education

María Raquel Picornell Buendía, José Manuel Sáez López — Wed, 07 Oct 2026 00:00:00 +0000

The growing integration of digital technologies in early childhood education requires an understanding not only of their effectiveness, but also of their role as mediators of learning and communication processes, particularly in socially vulnerable contexts. Although computational thinking has gained increasing attention in early education, few empirical studies comparatively analyse how different technological modalities mediate learning within a single educational intervention. This study addresses this gap by examining the educational impact of a multimodal computational thinking intervention based on unplugged activities, mobile applications and educational robotics, implemented with five-year-old children in a high-needs public school. A quasi-experimental single-group pretest–posttest design was adopted (N=16), assessing six computational thinking dimensions: decomposition, pattern recognition, abstraction, modelling and simulation, algorithms and evaluation. The results reveal significant improvements across all analysed dimensions, with differentiated effects depending on the modality used. Unplugged activities promoted reflection, verbalisation and pattern recognition; mobile applications strengthened sequencing and symbolic prediction; and educational robotics produced the strongest gains in abstraction and evaluation, while also reducing performance variability among learners. These findings conceptualise computational thinking as a technologically mediated pedagogical and communicative practice and provide empirical evidence to inform the design of inclusive and equitable early childhood interventions in socially vulnerable educational contexts.

Video as a Tool for Inclusive Education

José Emiliano Ramírez García, Clarisa Ramos Feijóo — Wed, 07 Oct 2026 00:00:00 +0000

This article presents the results of a qualitative study conducted jointly by the Roma Culture Chair at the University of Alicante and the City Council of Aspe (Spain). The study stems from the limited presence of Roma role models with higher education backgrounds in educational and audiovisual materials aimed at students in compulsory education. Its objective is to analyse the factors that hinder and facilitate the socio-political and educational inclusion of Roma people, while generating resources that challenge stereotypes associated with the Roma community. To this end, thirteen video capsules produced from the 4th Psychopedagogical Conference held in Aspe in 2022 were analysed. The methodology is based on the qualitative analysis of videos built from the testimonies of Roma university graduates, educational professionals, and participating students. Their selection was guided by a theoretical framework focused on educational inequality, motivation, and inclusion processes. The findings show that stigmatisation, structural inequalities, and limiting beliefs continue to affect Roma students’ access to and persistence in higher education. They also identify facilitating factors, including family and university role models, positive teacher–student relationships, motivation towards learning, and policies promoting educational equity. The study concludes that the formal education system is a strategic setting for reducing inequalities and combating anti-Gypsyism. Its main contribution is the proposal of short-form video as an awareness-raising resource that can increase the visibility of positive role models and promote critical reflection in educational and community contexts.

STEM Kit and IBPT Approach to Develop Research Skills in Engineering and Nursing Students

Wed, 07 Oct 2026 00:00:00 +0000

Formative research constitutes a fundamental component of higher education, particularly in public universities where limitations are still observed in the early development of students’ research competencies. The present study aimed to analyze the effectiveness of the Problem- and Technology-Based Research (IBPT) approach, integrated with an educational STEM kit and visual programming, for the development of research competencies in engineering and nursing students from public universities in Peru. A quantitative approach with a quasi-experimental pretest–posttest design and non-probabilistic intentional sampling was employed. A total of 110 first-year students participated, developing formative research projects focused on real problems in their local context through the use of innovative technological resources. The evaluation of research competencies was conducted considering the four phases of the IBPT approach: problem understanding, activity design, activity execution, and solution review. The results showed statistically significant improvements (p < 0.05) across all evaluated phases in both engineering and nursing students. The greatest progress was observed in the solution review phase, reflecting the strengthening of critical thinking, experimentation, optimization, autonomy, and critical attitude. Likewise, no significant differences were identified between both academic programs regarding the use of technological resources, demonstrating the cross-disciplinary applicability of the IBPT approach. It is concluded that the integration of the IBPT approach with accessible educational technologies promotes active learning, experimentation, and the transfer of knowledge to real contexts, contributing to the strengthening of research competencies among university students.

Application of STROBE in University Theses: A Strategy to Improve Research Quality and Scientific Publishing

Jhosef Franck Quispe Pari, Lucia Karen Bellido Valladares — Wed, 07 Oct 2026 00:00:00 +0000

STROBE is a global initiative that provides guidelines to improve the quality of reporting in observational studies, and it is currently used by many high-impact journals as a prerequisite for article acceptance. In the university context, its application not only helps to raise research quality but also represents a more rigorous tool than traditional instruments for evaluating theses. Objective: To evaluate the relationship between methodological quality and STROBE compliance in Human Medicine theses at a public university, highlighting STROBE as a more rigorous tool to improve quality and support scientific publication. Method: A quantitative, observational, cross-sectional, and correlational design was used. A total of 66 theses from 2020 to 2023 were analyzed using a validated methodological quality instrument and the STROBE checklist. Descriptive and inferential statistics (ANOVA and Spearman) were applied. Results: Although the methodological quality instrument classified most theses as good or very good, STROBE compliance was low (mean 53.9% ±14.1), with only 13.6% of theses exceeding 70%. The weakest dimensions were methodology (46.9%) and results (48.6%). A strong and positive relationship was found between methodological quality and STROBE compliance (Spearman p<0.000), as well as significant differences between quality levels (ANOVA p<0.000). Conclusions: STROBE proved to be a more demanding and revealing tool than the methodological quality instrument, since it identified weaknesses in theses that had been classified as good quality. Complying with STROBE not only improves research quality but also increases the chances of publication in high-impact journals. Therefore, it is recommended to institutionalize STROBE in thesis regulations and training programs. Its adoption represents a low-cost and high-impact strategy to strengthen research culture, improve quality, and increase the international visibility of university scientific production. These results provide significant evidence for Peruvian universities and other institutions in developing countries where the research culture is still emerging.

Neofascist Ecosystem in Education: The Far Right’s “Educational Map” in Spain

Wed, 07 Oct 2026 00:00:00 +0000

This study analyses the configuration of the political–pedagogical ecosystem linked to neo-fascism in Spain within a context of increasing political polarization and cultural dispute in the educational sphere. While previous research has examined the electoral and institutional rise of the far right, limited attention has been paid to its relational infrastructure in education. The aim is to identify the main actors that compose this ecosystem and to characterize the postulates they promote. The methodology here applied combines Social Network Analysis (SNA) and digital ethnography. The study focuses on the opposition campaign against the current educational law since 2021, LOMLOE, articulated around the hashtag #StopLeyCelaá on the social media platform X. The analysis draws on approximately 150,000 posts, which served as the empirical basis for constructing and refining the relational network, which was later analysed using software Gephi and UCINET. The findings show that the educational map of the far right in Spain constitutes a complex relational network including political parties, foundations, associations, religious groups, media outlets, and mobilization platforms. This ecosystem, which counts on both individuals and platforms that connect and organise the whole educational conservative community, facilitates the diffusion and legitimation of frames oriented toward market-based approaches to education governance, parental primacy, opposition to equality-related content, and national-patriotic curricular configurations grounded in meritocratic and hierarchical principles.

The Effect of Foreign Education on Labor Income in Panama: An Econometric Analysis

Jheremy Moreno Williams, Javier Stanziola, Neidha Nadal, Mariana León — Wed, 07 Oct 2026 00:00:00 +0000

This study examines the relationship between international education and labor income among professionals in Panama, within a context of economic growth that coexists with heterogeneous access to educational and labor opportunities. The objective is to estimate the extent to which studying abroad is associated with income differences, integrating both human capital and signaling approaches. The analysis is based on the Mincer (1974) earnings equation, extended to include sociodemographic, economic, and social mobility variables. An econometric approach is applied, combining a two-stage Heckman model with robust estimations to correct for potential selection bias and improve the consistency of the results. Findings suggest that international education is positively associated with income within the analyzed sample, even after controlling for educational level, English proficiency, and other individual characteristics. Additionally, English language skills and postgraduate education are significantly associated with higher income levels. These results are consistent with the literature on returns to education and global competencies, although they are not generalizable due to the non-probabilistic nature of the sample. In terms of implications, the study highlights the importance of strengthening policies for educational internationalization, developing strategic competencies, and equitable access to training opportunities.

Self-regulated Learning Strategies with Generative AI among Pre service Teachers

Wed, 07 Oct 2026 00:00:00 +0000

Generative artificial intelligence (GenAI) has emerged as a promising resource to support self-regulated learning in initial teacher education contexts. However, there is still limited empirical evidence on how pre-service teachers implement specific self-regulated learning strategies mediated by these technologies. The present study aimed to identify the self-regulated learning strategies mediated by GenAI used by pre-service teachers in the Dominican Republic and to establish differentiated profiles according to their level of regulation. A non-experimental, descriptive survey-based study was conducted. Data were collected through self-report using a questionnaire specifically designed and validated for this purpose and administered to 608 pre-service teachers. The results show a moderate use of self-regulated learning strategies supported by GenAI, with greater frequency in planning, study organization, and information seeking, whereas strategies related to evaluation, metacognitive monitoring, and critical reflection were less frequent. In addition, three differentiated self-regulation profiles were identified, significantly associated with the academic program attended. The findings highlight the need to strengthen pedagogical and technological preparation aimed at promoting the critical and reflective use of GenAI in initial teacher education and to encourage further research examining the development of these processes over time.

Between Emotion and Belonging: Audiovisual Narrative Analysis and Identity Construction in Inca Kola’s “Celebra Nuestras Diferencias”

Wed, 07 Oct 2026 00:00:00 +0000

This study addresses the limited empirical evidence on how audiovisual advertising narratives construct immersive experiences linked to cultural identity in Latin American digital contexts. Although the literature has highlighted the role of emotional storytelling in brand building, there remains a gap in understanding how audiovisual resources are integrated to generate identification and a sense of belonging. The objective was to analyze how the audiovisual narrative of the commercial “Celebra nuestras diferencias” contributes to the construction of an immersive experience aimed at conveying values of diversity and cultural belonging in digital environments. A qualitative approach was adopted using a case study design, employing an audiovisual observation sheet and a focus group with communication students. The analysis identified 137 in vivo codes, organized around dimensions related to audiovisual narrative and immersive experience. The results show that immersive experience does not depend on isolated elements, but rather on the coherent articulation of music, everyday settings, diverse characters, and a culturally meaningful color palette, which generates authenticity, emotion, and symbolic identification. Finally, it is concluded that audiovisual digital advertising not only fulfills a persuasive function but also acts as a space of cultural mediation where shared meanings are constructed and a sense of belonging is strengthened.

Digital Competence in Smartphone Use Among Higher Education Faculty

Wed, 07 Oct 2026 00:00:00 +0000

This study examines teachers’ digital competence in the use of smartphones as a pedagogical tool in higher education, within a context characterized by the increasing digitalization of educational environments and the widespread incorporation of mobile devices into academic practice. Despite their extensive availability, previous research has identified a persistent gap between technological access and its effective pedagogical integration, particularly in relation to mobile learning (m-learning). In this context, the aim of the study is to assess the level of teachers’ digital competence related to the educational use of smartphones and to analyze its distribution according to professional variables, providing a specific approach focused on a particular device within the DigCompEdu framework, which has traditionally been applied from a more general perspective. The methodology follows a quantitative approach based on the application of a questionnaire specifically designed for this study composed of 44 items structured across the six competence areas of the DigCompEdu model, administered to a sample of 135 university teachers. Descriptive, factorial, and cluster analyses were conducted to identify differentiated competence profiles. The results show a concentration of teachers at basic and intermediate levels of digital competence, highlighting a predominantly instrumental integration of smartphones, with limited presence of transformative pedagogical practices. In addition, differences associated with teaching experience were identified, suggesting the existence of differentiated patterns in the pedagogical appropriation of the device. As a contribution, this study provides a specific empirical assessment of the pedagogical use of smartphones within the DigCompEdu framework, advancing towards a more situated conceptualization of teachers’ digital competence. The findings offer relevant implications for the design of training and institutional strategies aimed at fostering a more critical, reflective, and structured integration of mobile learning in higher education.

Selective Agency and Platformized Privacy: Explaining Youth Participation in Datafied Social Media

Khayrat Ayyad, Ibrahim Sabry, Nashwa Kamal — Fri, 09 Oct 2026 00:00:00 +0000

This study reassesses the explanatory scope of Privacy Calculus Theory (PCT) within platformized social media environments shaped by datafication, algorithmic governance, and participation-driven visibility regimes. While prior research has documented inconsistecies between privacy concern and disclosure behaviour, limited empirical work has examined how awareness, disclosure orientation, and behavioural responses interact under such conditions. Drawing on survey data from 386 Instagram and TikTok users in a high social-media-penetration context, the study investigates how experiential awareness of platform data practices, disclosure orientation, privacy-protective behaviour, and high-connectivity participation intersect in digitally mediated interaction. Findings reveal a differentiated configuration of privacy negotiation: experiential awareness significantly predicts localized protective actions but does not constrain disclosure willingness or expansive connectivity practices. Disclosure orientation emerges as the strongest predictor of visibility-enhancing participation. Conceptualized as selective agency, this pattern refines PCT by demonstrating how behavioural responses to privacy concerns are mediated by infrastructural participation logics that normalize connectivity and relational visibility. The study contributes by specifying the behavioural boundary conditions of privacy calculus in contemporary datafied communication environments.

AI Educational Responses: Quality and Reliability in ChatGPT and Gemini

Wed, 07 Oct 2026 00:00:00 +0000

The integration of large language models into higher education has prompted growing interest in assessing the quality and reliability of their responses in academic tasks. However, there remains a lack of comparative studies combining algorithmic metrics with expert human perception while considering prompt design as a key performance variable. This study comparatively analyzes the performance of ChatGPT 4.5 and Gemini 2.5 across educational and research tasks using an explanatory-sequential mixed methods design. In the quantitative phase, responses generated through prompts structured with ASPECCT, CLEAR, and Chain of Thought techniques were assessed across seven quality parameters. In the qualitative phase, 78 evaluators with differentiated academic profiles rated responses using specialized rubrics. Results show that Gemini 2.5 achieved the highest overall mean score (92.68/100), with significant advantages in disciplinary contextualization and cognitive depth, while ChatGPT 4.5 demonstrated greater stability in quantitative data analysis. Qualitative analysis revealed a stance of cautious trust among evaluators, who acknowledged the models as powerful textual co-designers yet epistemologically fragile. The study concludes that generative AI effectiveness in academic settings critically depends on prompt quality, expert supervision, and disciplinary adaptation, positioning prompt engineering as an essential academic competency.

Racist Discourses on Social Network X as a Delegitimization Strategy of the Indigenous Uprising: An Analysis of the October 2019 Protests in Ecuador

Wed, 07 Oct 2026 00:00:00 +0000

The Indigenous uprising of October 2019 in Ecuador constituted one of the most significant episodes of social mobilization in recent decades and generated an intense discursive dispute across digital environments. Although this event has been examined from political, economic, and sociological perspectives, limited attention has been paid to the role of racist discourses disseminated through social media as mechanisms for delegitimizing Indigenous protest. In this context, the present study aims to analyze racist discourses on the social network X as a strategy for delegitimizing the Indigenous uprising of October 2019 in Ecuador, identifying their main discursive categories, dissemination mechanisms, and effects on the construction of digital public opinion. The study adopts a mixed-methods approach that combines Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) with computational tools for content analysis, network analysis, and the examination of digital affect. A corpus of 80 public posts was analyzed, selected according to thematic criteria related to the Indigenous movement and racializing expressions circulated during the protest period. The findings reveal that racist discourses were primarily articulated through strategies of criminalization, dehumanization, de-Indigenization, and cultural stigmatization, reinforced by algorithmic amplification dynamics and the intervention of highly visible actors on the platform. In addition, counter-narratives promoted by Indigenous organizations and allied actors were identified, aimed at reclaiming the legitimacy of social demands and denouncing practices of structural discrimination. The main contribution of this study lies in providing empirical evidence on the relationship between digital racism, social protest, and the construction of political legitimacy in Latin American contexts. The findings contribute to understanding how digital platforms can reproduce historical inequalities while simultaneously serving as spaces of symbolic resistance and contestation over the public meaning of social events.

Development and Validation of a Brief Digital Fatigue Scale for University Students

Wed, 07 Oct 2026 00:00:00 +0000

The rise of screen-mediated university environments has brought to light a growing problem: digital fatigue, understood as cognitive, visual, social, and motivational exhaustion resulting from the intensive use of technology. However, in Latin America and the Caribbean, and specifically in Peru, there is a lack of culturally contextualized instruments and strategies to measure this emerging phenomenon and detect it early to inform pedagogical decisions. To address this recurring structural gap, the objective of this study was to develop and validate a brief and robust digital fatigue scale for higher education students. The method used was exploratory and confirmatory quantitative factor analysis of 502 college students; at the same time, invariance and reliability tests were conducted, resulting in a brief 20-item scale comprising five concurrent and correlating dimensions: visual fatigue, social fatigue, digital disengagement, cognitive fatigue, and somatic fatigue. The results showed a model with excellent fit (CFI = 0.962 and RMSEA = 0.066) and typical invariance by gender and academic year. The main practical implication is that educators and researchers now have a brief and psychometrically robust tool to identify specific profiles of digital burnout, design tailored support, and promote digital well-being policies among higher education students.

The Educational Power of Images on Social Media to Promote Animal Rights Awareness

María Dolores Sánchez Arjona, Beatriz Cimadevilla Alonso — Wed, 07 Oct 2026 00:00:00 +0000

The viral images seen on social media during the DANA floods in the Valencian Community (Spain) in 2024, depicting extreme situations involving animals, lead us to consider how viewing such images impacts collective education when they include a novel element: animal rescue. We believe that, although the disseminated images only showed one aspect of the catastrophe related to animals, with interventions or omissions in providing assistance, they did fulfill the function of stimulating empathy, fostering vicarious learning, and improving our attitude towards non-human animals through positive, non-violent examples. To this end, a survey was conducted using a virtual questionnaire, focused on the Valencia area, to qualitatively analyze the impact of images viewed on social networks and to assess opinions regarding the perceived social involvement and evolution, both at the time and in comparison with previous generations. This confirms our initial hypothesis that the dissemination of animal rescue images on social networks has an educational function and contributes to the perception of increased animal welfare awareness in society through images of bloodless and exemplary actions. This is the main contribution, with the emerging issue being the demand for animal rescue protocols, which are currently nonexistent in most countries.

Measuring Artificial Intelligence Literacy in Higher Education: Validation of the ECAE-AI Scale

José Luis Girarte Guillén, Mariana Cavazos Ruiz — Wed, 07 Oct 2026 00:00:00 +0000

The accelerated integration of artificial intelligence (AI) into higher education has increased the need for valid instruments capable of assessing AI literacy beyond technical skills, including attitudinal and ethical dimensions. Despite growing international interest in AI literacy, validated instruments adapted to Latin American undergraduate contexts remain scarce, limiting evidence-based educational interventions and institutional AI policies. This study aimed to validate the factorial structure of the ECAE-AI scale, a 14-item instrument designed to assess knowledge, attitudes, and ethical awareness regarding AI use among university students. A non-experimental, cross-sectional, instrumental design was applied to 408 undergraduate students from a northeastern Mexican university. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) using the DWLS estimator confirmed an excellent fit for the three-factor correlated model (CFI = .997; TLI = .996; RMSEA = .057; SRMR = .048). Standardised factor loadings ranged from .607 to .894. Reliability was excellent at both the global (? = .915; ? = .917) and dimensional levels. Convergent and discriminant validity were also supported. The findings support the ECAE-AI as a psychometrically robust instrument for assessing AI literacy in higher education, integrating cognitive, attitudinal, and ethical dimensions within a single framework. The scale provides practical value for diagnosing AI literacy profiles, designing evidence-based educational interventions, and supporting responsible AI integration policies in higher education institutions.

Higher Education Under Fire: Historical Continuity, Legal Gaps, and a Proposed Framework for Global Academic Response

Ali Gorji — Wed, 07 Oct 2026 00:00:00 +0000

Universities have historically been central to intellectual independence, scientific progress, and cultural continuity. Yet, they have repeatedly been targeted during armed conflicts, destroying infrastructure, causing loss of life, and long-term disruption of knowledge production and scientific memory. This paper provides a historical overview of attacks on higher education institutions from antiquity to contemporary conflicts, demonstrating a persistent and escalating pattern of vulnerability across regions and time periods. It critically examines the evolution of international legal frameworks, revealing persistent deficiencies in implementation, enforcement, and accountability. It further exposes structural constraints, including weak enforcement mechanisms, geopolitical asymmetries, and inconsistent international responses. Ultimately, the role of academic institutions in protecting knowledge systems is discussed, and a framework is proposed for strengthened global academic coordination, including structured response protocols, shared documentation systems, and collaborative support mechanisms to enhance the protection and resilience of higher education institutions during armed conflict.