Ahmed, S. (2015). La Politica Cultural De Las Emociones. Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México.
Aldamen, Y. (2023). Xenophobia and Hate Speech towards Refugees on Social Media: Reinforcing Causes, Negative Effects, Defense and Response Mechanisms against That Speech. Societies, 13(4), 83. https://doi.org/10.3390/soc13040083
Amores, J.-J. y Arcila-Calderón, C. (2025). What is the nature of the racist and xenophobic hate speech disseminated on social media in Southern Europe? Topic modelling of anti-immigration messages posted on X and YouTube in Spain, Italy and Greece. Communication & Society, 38(1), 163–180. https://doi.org/10.15581/003.38.1.013
Antona Jimeno, T., Mayagoitia-Soria, A. y ?or?evi?, J. (2024). Investigación sobre el Discurso de Odio. Una propuesta de análisis bibliométrico en España y LATAM entre 2021 y 2022. Revista ICONO 14. Revista científica de Comunicación y Tecnologías emergentes, 22(1), e2128. https://doi.org/10.7195/ri14.v22i1.2128
Arce-García, S. y Menéndez-Menéndez, M.-I. (2023). Inflaming public debate: a methodology to determine origin and characteristics of hate speech about sexual and gender diversity on Twitter. Profesional de la información, 32(1), e320106. https://doi.org/10.3145/epi.2023.ene.06
Arcila-Calderón, C., Amores, J.-J., Sánchez-Holgado, P., Vrysis, L., Vryzas, N. y Oller Alonso, M. (2022a). How to Detect Online Hate towards Migrants and Refugees? Developing and Evaluating a Classifier of Racist and Xenophobic Hate Speech Using Shallow and Deep Learning. Sustainability, 14(20), 13094. https://doi.org/10.3390/su142013094
Arcila-Calderón, C., Sánchez-Holgado, P., Quintana-Moreno, C., Amores, J.-J. y Blanco-Herrero, D. (2022b). Hate speech and social acceptance of migrants in Europe: Analysis of tweets with geolocation. Comunicar, 30, 21–34. https://doi.org/10.3916/C71-2022-02
Aria, M. y Cuccurullo, C. (2017). bibliometrix: An R-tool for comprehensive science mapping analysis. Journal of Informetrics, 11(4), 959–975. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joi.2017.08.007
Boukemia, J., Sältzer, M. y Boyer, S. (2025). Misogyny, politics, and social media determinants of hostile engagement against women parliamentarians on Twitter. Legislative Studies Quarterly, 50(3), e12486. https://doi.org/10.1111/lsq.12486
Breazu, P. (2023). Entitlement Racism on YouTube: White injury—the licence to Humiliate Roma migrants in the UK. Discourse, Context & Media, 55, 100718. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dcm.2023.100718
Butler, J. (2021). Palabras que hieren. Sobre el discurso de odio y la política de lo performativo. Paidós.
Collins, P. H. (2000). Black Feminist Thought: Knowledge, Consciousness, and the Politics of Empowerment. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203900055
Crenshaw, K. W. (1989). Demarginalizing the Intersection of Race and Sex: A Black Feminist Critique of Antidiscrimination Doctrine, Feminist Theory and Antiracist Politics. The University of Chicago Legal Forum, 139–167. https://scholarship.law.columbia.edu/faculty_scholarship/3007
Dellagiacoma, L., Geschke, D. y Rothmund, T. (2024). Ideological attitudes predicting online hate speech: the differential effects of right-wing authoritarianism and social dominance orientation. Frontiers in Social Psychology, 2, 1389437. https://doi.org/10.3389/frsps.2024.1389437
Dickel, V. y Evolvi, G. (2023). “Victims of feminism”: exploring networked misogyny and #MeToo in the manosphere. Feminist Media Studies, 23(4), 1392–1408. https://doi.org/10.1080/14680777.2022.2029925
Giraud, E. H., Poole, E., de Quincey, E. y Richardson, J. E. (2025). Learning from online hate speech and digital racism: From automated to diffractive methods in social media analysis. The Sociological Review, 73(6), 1388–1407. https://doi.org/10.1177/00380261241305260
Hangartner, D., Gennaro, G., Alasiri, S., Bahrich, N., Bornhoft, A., Boucher, J., Demirci, B. B., et al. (2021). Empathy-based counterspeech can reduce racist hate speech in a social media field experiment. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 118(50), e2116310118. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2116310118
Hong, T., Tang, Z., Lu, M., Wang, Y., Wu, J. y Wijaya, D. (2025). Effects of #coronavirus content moderation on misinformation and anti-Asian hate on Instagram. New Media & Society, 27(2), 931–954. https://doi.org/10.1177/14614448231187529
Ibrahimova, M. (2023). Desenmascarando los discursos de odio en el mundo digital. UNESCO. https://courier.unesco.org/es/articles/desenmascarando-los-discursos-de-odio-en-el-mundo-digital
Iranzo-Cabrera, M., Castro-Bleda, M. J., Simón-Astudillo, I. y Hurtado, L.-F. (2024). Journalists’ Ethical Responsibility: Tackling Hate Speech Against Women Politicians in Social Media Through Natural Language Processing Techniques. Social Science Computer Review, 43(3), 475–502. https://doi.org/10.1177/08944393241269417
Izquierdo Montero, A., Laforgue-Bullido, N. y Abril-Hervás, D. (2022). Hate speech: a systematic review of scientific production and educational considerations. Revista Fuentes, 24(2), 222–233. https://doi.org/10.12795/revistafuentes.2022.20240
Kuric Kardelis, S., Sanmartín Ortí, A., Moraño Ferrer, X. y Guiteras Vila, X. (2024). MENAs y polarización en medios sociales digitales: la retroalimentación del odio. Revista ICONO 14. Revista científica de Comunicación y Tecnologías emergentes, 22(1), e2074. https://doi.org/10.7195/ri14.v22i1.2074
Kwarteng, J., Perfumi, S. C., Farrell, T., Third, A. y Fernandez, M. (2022). Misogynoir: challenges in detecting intersectional hate. Social Network Analysis and Mining, 12(1), 166. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13278-022-00993-7
Li, X. (2024). Hate speech against women on social media: Case study analysis in Asia. Environment and Social Psychology, 9(12), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.59429/esp.v9i12.3220
Lilleker, D. y Pérez-Escolar, M. (2023). Demonising Migrants in Contexts of Extremism: Analysis of Hate Speech in UK and Spain. Politics and Governance, 11(2), 127–137. https://doi.org/10.17645/pag.v11i2.6302
Lopes Miranda, S. (2023). Analyzing Hate Speech Against Women on Instagram. Open Information Science, 7(1), 20220161. https://doi.org/10.1515/opis-2022-0161
Magano, O. y D’Oliveira, T. (2023). Antigypsyism in Portugal: Expressions of Hate and Racism in Social Networks. Social Sciences, 12(9), 511. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci12090511
Martino, B. (2025). Justicia Social, odio digital y construcción monstruosa del Otro. Millcayac - Revista Digital de Ciencias Sociales, 11(21), 1–12. https://revistas.uncu.edu.ar/ojs3/index.php/millca-digital/article/view/8685
Matamoros-Fernández, A. (2017). Platformed racism: the mediation and circulation of an Australian race-based controversy on Twitter, Facebook and YouTube. Information, Communication & Society, 20(6), 930–946. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2017.1293130
Matamoros-Fernández, A. y Farkas, J. (2021). Racism, Hate Speech, and Social Media: A Systematic Review and Critique. Television & New Media, 22(2), 205–224. https://doi.org/10.1177/1527476420982230
Ministerio de Tecnologías de la Información y las Comunicaciones. (2025, Mar 21). Acciones para frenar la discriminación en Internet y construir un entorno digital más inclusivo. https://www.mintic.gov.co/portal/inicio/Sala-de-prensa/Noticias/400125:Acciones-para-frenar-la-discriminacion-en-Internet-y-construir-un-entorno-digital-mas-inclusivo
Mozafari, M., Farahbakhsh, R. y Crespi, N. (2020). Hate speech detection and racial bias mitigation in social media based on BERT model. PLOS ONE, 15(8), e0237861. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0237861
Ndahinda, F. M. y Mugabe, A. S. (2024). Streaming Hate: Exploring the Harm of Anti-Banyamulenge and Anti-Tutsi Hate Speech on Congolese Social Media. Journal of Genocide Research, 26(1), 48–72. https://doi.org/10.1080/14623528.2022.2078578
Olmos Alcaraz, A. (2023). El discurso político sobre las migraciones en Twitter durante la «crisis migratoria» de Ceuta (2021): De la corrección política al discurso del odio. Cultura, Lenguaje y Representación, 31, 13–30. https://doi.org/10.6035/clr.6793
Page, M. J., Moher, D., Bossuyt, P. M., Boutron, I., Hoffmann, T. C., Mulrow, C. D., Shamseer, L., et al. (2021). PRISMA 2020 explanation and elaboration: updated guidance and exemplars for reporting systematic reviews. BMJ, 372, n160. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.n160
Parvaresh, V. (2023). Covertly communicated hate speech: A corpus-assisted pragmatic study. Journal of Pragmatics, 205, 63–77. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pragma.2022.12.009
Piñeiro-Otero, T. y Martínez-Rolán, X. (2021). Say it to my face: Analysing hate speech against women on Twitter. Profesional de la información, 30(5), e300502. https://doi.org/10.3145/epi.2021.sep.02
Pronoza, E., Panicheva, P., Koltsova, O. y Rosso, P. (2021). Detecting ethnicity-targeted hate speech in Russian social media texts. Information Processing & Management, 58(6), 102674. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ipm.2021.102674
Ramírez-García, A., González-Molina, A. y Moyano-Pacheco, M. (2022). Interdisciplinarity of scientific production on hate speech and social media: A bibliometric analysis. Comunicar, 30(72), 129–140. https://doi.org/10.3916/C72-2022-10
Rouvroy, A. y Berns, T. (2018). Gobernabilidad algorítmica y perspectivas de emancipación:¿ lo dispar como condición de individuación mediante la relación? Ecuador Debate, 104, 124–147. http://hdl.handle.net/10469/15424
Sánchez-Holgado, P., Arcila-Calderón, C. y Gomes-Barbosa, M. (2023). Hate Speech and Polarization Around the “Trans Law” in Spain. Politics and Governance, 11(2), 187–197. https://doi.org/10.17645/pag.v11i2.6374
Sánchez-Meza, M., Schlesier Corrales, L., Visa Barbosa, M. y Carnicé-Mur, M. (2023). ¿De redes sociales a redes del odio? Análisis de la conversación digital en Twitter sobre la ministra de Igualdad española Irene Montero. Estudios sobre el Mensaje Periodístico, 29(3), 717–736. https://doi.org/10.5209/esmp.87271
Silva, C. y Carvalho, P. (2023). Quando É que os Elogios e o Humor Podem Ser Considerados Discurso de Ódio? Uma Perspetiva dos Grupos-Alvo em Portugal. Comunicação e Sociedade, 43, e023006. https://doi.org/10.17231/comsoc.43(2023).4135
Tarullo, R., Calvo, D. y Iranzo-Cabrera, M. (2024). #Feminazis on Instagram: Hate Speech and Misinformation, the Ongoing Discourse for Enlarging the Manosphere. KOME, 12(2), 91–110. https://doi.org/10.17646/KOME.of.18
Tontodimamma, A., Nissi, E., Sarra, A. y Fontanella, L. (2021). Thirty years of research into hate speech: topics of interest and their evolution. Scientometrics, 126(1), 157–179. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11192-020-03737-6
UNESCO. (2021). Addressing hate speech on social media: contemporary challenges (Discussion paper, 1). https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000379177
van Eck, N. J. y Waltman, L. (2010). Software survey: VOSviewer, a computer program for bibliometric mapping. Scientometrics, 84(2), 523–538. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11192-009-0146-3
Vélez-Coto, M., Morejón-Llamas, N. y Cárdenas-Rica, M. L. (2025). Sentimientos de odio ante fotografías racializadas: respuesta emocional y comportamental de adultos en redes sociales. Palabra Clave, 28(1), e2816. https://doi.org/10.5294/pacla.2025.28.1.6
We Are Social. (2025). Digital Report 2025. We Are Social Ltd. https://wearesocial.com/uk/blog/2025/02/digital-2025
Williams, M. L., Burnap, P., Javed, A., Liu, H. y Ozalp, S. (2020). Hate in the Machine: Anti-Black and Anti-Muslim Social Media Posts as Predictors of Offline Racially and Religiously Aggravated Crime. The British Journal of Criminology, 60(1), 93–117. https://doi.org/10.1093/bjc/azz049
Wu, C.-Y., Chang, S.-Y., Liu, L.-Y. y Hohl, A. (2025). GIS-based analysis of anti-Asian hate speech and its socioeconomic and ideological drivers in the United States during the early COVID-19 pandemic. GeoJournal, 90(1), 10. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10708-024-11264-7