Palabras clave

COVID-19, bots políticos, polarización política, propaganda digital, opinión pública, análisis de redes sociales

Resumen

Los contextos de polarización social y política están generando nuevas formas de comunicar que inciden en la esfera pública digital. En estos entornos, distintos actores sociales y políticos estarían contribuyendo a extremar sus posicionamientos, utilizando «bots» para crear espacios de distanciamiento social en los que tienen cabida el discurso del odio y la «incivility», un fenómeno que preocupa a científicos y expertos. El objetivo principal de esta investigación es analizar el rol que desempeñaron estos agentes automatizados en el debate en redes sociales sobre la gestión del Gobierno de España durante la pandemia global de COVID-19. Para ello, se han aplicado técnicas de «Social Big Data Analysis»: algoritmos de «machine learning» para conocer el posicionamiento de los usuarios; algoritmos de detección de «bots»; técnicas de «topic modeling» para conocer los temas del debate en la red, y análisis de sentimiento. Se ha utilizado una base de datos compuesta por mensajes de Twitter publicados durante el confinamiento iniciado a raíz del estado de alarma español. La principal conclusión es que los «bots» podrían haber servido para diseñar una campaña de propaganda política iniciada por actores tradicionales con el objetivo de aumentar la crispación en un ambiente de emergencia social. Se sostiene que, aunque dichos agentes no son los únicos actores que aumentan la polarización, sí coadyuvan a extremar el debate sobre determinados temas clave, incrementando la negatividad.

Ver infografía

Referencias

Abramowitz, A.I. (2010). The disappearing center. Yale University Press. https://bit.ly/3s7UlwC

Link Google Scholar

Adlung, S., Lünenborg, M., & Raetzsch, C. (2021). Pitching gender in a racist tune: The affective publics of the# 120decibel campaign. Media and Communication, 9(2), 16-26. https://doi.org/10.17645/mac.v9i2.3749

Link DOI | Link Google Scholar

Al-Rawi, A., & Shukla, V. (2020). Bots as active news promoters: A digital analysis of COVID-19 tweets. Information, 11(10), 461. https://doi.org/10.3390/info11100461

Link DOI | Link Google Scholar

Allcott, H., & Gentzkow, M. (2017). Social media and fake news in the 2016 election. Journal of economic perspectives, 31(2), 211-36. https://doi.org/10.1257/jep.31.2.211

Link DOI | Link Google Scholar

Barberá, P., Jost, J.T., Nagler, J., Tucker, J.A., & Bonneau, R. (2015). Tweeting from left to right: Is online political communication more than an echo chamber? Psychological science, 26(10), 1531-1542. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797615594620

Link DOI | Link Google Scholar

Boshmaf, Y., Muslukhov, I., Beznosov, K., & Ripeanu, M. (2013). Design and analysis of a social botnet. Computer Networks, 57(2), 556-578. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.comnet.2012.06.006

Link DOI | Link Google Scholar

Boxell, L., Gentzkow, M., & Shapiro, & J.M. (2017). Is the internet causing political polarization? Evidence from demographics. National Bureau of Economic Research. https://doi.org/10.3386/w23258

Link DOI | Link Google Scholar

Bradshaw, S., & Howard, P.N. (2019). The global disinformation order: 2019 global inventory of organised social media manipulation. Oxford Internet Institute. https://acortar.link/puyazU

Link Google Scholar

Calvo, E., & Aruguete, N. (2020). Fake News, trolls y otros encantos. Cómo funcionan (para bien y para mal) las redes sociales. Siglo XXI. https://doi.org/10.22201/fcpys.24484911e.2020.29.76061

Link DOI | Link Google Scholar

Colleoni, E., Rozza, A., & Arvidsson, A. (2014). Echo chamber or public sphere? Predicting political orientation and measuring political homophily in Twitter using big data. Journal of Communication, 64(2), 317-332, https://doi.org/10.1111/jcom.12084

Link DOI | Link Google Scholar

Fernández, P. (1996). Determinación del tamaño muestral. Cad Aten Primaria, 3(138-14), 1-6. https://bit.ly/3DYcijz

Link Google Scholar

Ferrara, E., Varol, O., Davis, C., Menczer, F., & Flammini, A. (2016). The rise of social bots. Communications of the ACM, 59(7), 96-104. https://doi.org/10.1145/2818717

Link DOI | Link Google Scholar

Fiorina, M.P., & Abrams, S.J. (2008). Political polarization in the American public. Annual Review of Political Science, 11, 563-588. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.polisci.11.053106.153836

Link DOI | Link Google Scholar

Grün, B., & Hornik, K. (2011). Topicmodels: An R package for fitting topic models. Journal of Statistical Software, 40(13), 1-30. https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v040.i13

Link DOI | Link Google Scholar

Guevara, J.A., Gómez, D., Robles, J M., & Montero, J. (2020). Measuring polarization: A fuzzy set theoretical approach. In M.J. Lesot, S. Vieira, M.z. Reformat, J.O. Carvalho, A. Wilbik, B. Bouchon-Meunier & R.R. Yager, (Eds), Information Processing and Management of Uncertainty in Knowledge-Based Systems (pp. 510-522). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-50143-3_40

Link DOI | Link Google Scholar

Hansen, L.K., Arvidsson, A., Nielsen, F.A., Colleoni, E., & Etter, M. (2011). Good friends, bad news-affect and virality in twitter. In J.J. Park, L.T. Yang, C. Lee (Eds.), Future information technology (pp. 34-43). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-22309-9_5

Link DOI | Link Google Scholar

Howard, P.N. (2006). New media campaigns and the managed citizen. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1080/10584600701641532

Link DOI | Link Google Scholar

Howard, P.N., Woolley, S., & Calo, R. (2018). Algorithms, bots, and political communication in the U.S. 2016 election: The challenge of automated political communication for election law and administration. Journal of Information Technology & Politics, 15(2), 81-93. https://doi.org/10.1080/19331681.2018.1448735

Link DOI | Link Google Scholar

Iyengar, S., Lelkes, Y., Levendusky, M., Malhotra, N., & Westwood, S.J. (2019). The origins and consequences of affective polarization in the United States. Annual Review of Political Science, 22(1), 129-146, https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-polisci-051117-073034

Link DOI | Link Google Scholar

Kearney, M.W. (2019). Rtweet: Collecting and analyzing Twitter data. Journal of Open Source Software, 4(42). 1829. https://doi.org/10.21105/joss.01829

Link DOI | Link Google Scholar

Keller, F.B., Schoch, D., Stier, S., & Yang, J.H. (2019). Political astroturfing on Twitter: How to coordinate a disinformation campaign. Political Communication, 37(2), 256-280. https://doi.org/10.1080/10584609.2019.1661888

Link DOI | Link Google Scholar

Keller, T.R., & Klinger, U. (2019). Social bots in election campaigns: Theoretical, empirical, and methodological implications. Political Communication, 36(1), 171-189. https://doi.org/10.1080/10584609.2018.1526238

Link DOI | Link Google Scholar

Kovic, M., Rauchfleisch, A., Sele, M., & Caspar, C. (2018). Digital astroturfing in politics: Definition, typology, and countermeasures. Studies in Communication Sciences, 18(1), 69-85. https://doi.org/10.24434/j.scoms.2018.01.005

Link DOI | Link Google Scholar

Lelkes, Y. (2016). Mass polarization: Manifestations and measurements. Public Opinion Quarterly, 80(1), 392-410. https://doi.org/10.1093/poq/nfw005

Link DOI | Link Google Scholar

Luengo, O., García-Marín, J., & De-Blasio, E. (2021). COVID-19 on YouTube: Debates and polarisation in the digital sphere. [COVID-19 en YouTube: Debates y polarización en la esfera digital]. Comunicar, 69, 9-19. https://doi.org/10.3916/C69-2021-01

Link DOI | Link Google Scholar

Martini, F., Samula, P., Keller, T.R., & Klinger, U. (2021). Bot, or not? Comparing three methods for detecting social bots in five political discourses. Big Data & Society, 8(2). https://doi.org/10.1177/20539517211033566

Link DOI | Link Google Scholar

Moffitt, J.D., King, C., & Carley, K.M. (2021). Hunting conspiracy theories during the COVID-19 pandemic. Social Media+Society, 7(3). https://doi.org/10.1177/20563051211043212

Link DOI | Link Google Scholar

Morgan, S. (2018). Fake news, disinformation, manipulation and online tactics to undermine democracy. Journal of Cyber Policy, 3(1), 39-43. https://doi.org/10.1080/23738871.2018.1462395

Link DOI | Link Google Scholar

Mueller, S.D., & Saeltzer, M. (2020). Twitter made me do it! Twitter's tonal platform incentive and its effect on online campaigning. Information, Communication & Society, 1-26. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2020.1850841

Link DOI | Link Google Scholar

Neyazi, T.A. (2019). Digital propaganda, political bots and polarized politics in India. Asian Journal of Communication, 30(1), 39-57. https://doi.org/10.1080/01292986.2019.1699938

Link DOI | Link Google Scholar

Papacharissi, Z. (2004). Democracy online: Civility, politeness, and the democratic potential of online political discussion groups. New media & society, 6(2), 259-283. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444804041444

Link DOI | Link Google Scholar

Pastor-Galindo, J., Nespoli, P., Gómez-Mármol, F., & Mártinez-Pérez, G. (2020). Spotting political social bots in Twitter: A use case of the 2019 Spanish general election. IEEE Transactions on Network and Service Management, 8, 10282-10304. https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2020.2965257

Link DOI | Link Google Scholar

Persily, N. (2017). The 2016 U.S. election: Can democracy survive the internet? Journal of Democracy, 28(2), 63-76. https://doi.org/10.1353/jod.2017.0025

Link DOI | Link Google Scholar

Price, K.R., Priisalu, J., & Nomin, S. (2019). Analysis of the impact of poisoned data within twitter classification models. IFAC-PapersOnLine, 52(19), 175-180. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ifacol.2019.12.170

Link DOI | Link Google Scholar

Prior, M. (2013). Media and political polarization. Annual Review of Political Science, 16, 101-127. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-polisci-100711-135242

Link DOI | Link Google Scholar

Rowe, I. (2015). Civility 2.0: A comparative analysis of incivility in online political discussion. Information, Communication & Society, 18(2), 121-138. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2014.940365

Link DOI | Link Google Scholar

Santana, L.E., & Huerta-Cánepa, G. (2019). ¿Son bots? Automatización en redes sociales durante las elecciones presidenciales de Chile 2017. Cuadernos.info, 44, 61-77. https://doi.org/10.7764/cdi.44.1629

Link DOI | Link Google Scholar

Sartori, G. (2005). Parties and party systems: A framework for analysis. ECPR press.

Link Google Scholar

Serrano-Contreras, I.J., García-Marín, J., & Luengo, O.G. (2020). Measuring online political dialogue: Does polarization trigger more deliberation? Media and Communication, 8(4), 63-72. https://doi.org/10.17645/mac.v8i4.3149

Link DOI | Link Google Scholar

Shao, C., Ciampaglia, G.L., Varol, O., Flammini, A., Menczer, F., & Yang, K.C. (2018). The spread of low-credibility content by social bots. Nature Communication, 9(1), 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-018-06930-7

Link DOI | Link Google Scholar

Shu, K., Mahudeswaran, D., Wang, S., Lee, D., & Liu, H. (2020). Fakenewsnet: A data repository with news content, social context, and spatiotemporal information for studying fake news on social media. Big data, 8(3), 171-188. http://doi.org/10.1089/big.2020.0062

Link Google Scholar

Sobieraj, S., & Berry, J.M. (2011). From incivility to outrage: Political discourse in blogs, talk radio, and cable news. Political Communication, 28(1), 19-41. https://doi.org/10.1080/10584609.2010.542360

Link DOI | Link Google Scholar

Stella, M., Ferrara, E., & De-Domenico, M. (2018). Bots increase exposure to negative and inflammatory content in online social systems. In J. Kleinberg (Ed.), Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 115(49), 12435-12440. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1803470115

Link DOI | Link Google Scholar

Sunstein, C.R. (2001). Designing democracy: What constitutions do? Oxford University Press.

Link Google Scholar

Sunstein, C.R. (2018). #Republic. Princeton university press.

Link Google Scholar

Taber, C.S., & Lodge, M. (2006). Motivated skepticism in the evaluation of political beliefs. American journal of political science, 50(3), 755-769. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-5907.2006.00214.x

Link DOI | Link Google Scholar

Uyheng, J., & Carley, K.M. (2020). Bots and online hate during the COVID-19 pandemic: Case studies in the United States and the Philippines. J Comput Soc Sc, 3, 445-468. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42001-020-00087-4

Link DOI | Link Google Scholar

Walker, E.T. (2014). Grassroots for hire: Public affairs consultants in American democracy. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139108829

Link DOI | Link Google Scholar

Yan, H.Y., Yang, K., Menczer, F., & Shanahan, J. (2020). Asymmetrical perceptions of partisan political bots. New Media & Society, 23(10), 3016-3037. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444820942744

Link DOI | Link Google Scholar

Crossmark

Ficha técnica

Recibido: 04-10-2021

Revisado: 19-10-2021

Aceptado: 03-12-2021

OnlineFirst: 01-02-2022

Fecha publicación: 01-04-2022

Tiempo de revisión del artículo : 15 (en días) | Media de tiempo de revisión de los manuscritos del número 71: 45 (en días)

Tiempo de aceptación del artículo: 60 (en días) | Media tiempo aceptación de los manuscritos del número 71: 70 (en días)

Tiempo de edición OnlineFirst: 134 (en días) | Media tiempo edición de los OnlineFirst del número 71: 144 (en días)

Tiempo de publicacicón final del artículo: 179 (en días) | Media tiempo de publicación final de los articulos del número 71: 189 (en días)

Métricas

Métricas de este artículo

Vistas: 26872

Lectura del abstract: 24915

Descargas del PDF: 1957

Métricas completas de Comunicar 71

Vistas: 250863

Lectura del abstract: 222335

Descargas del PDF: 28528

Citado por

Citas en Web of Science

Moret-Soler, D; Alonso-Munoz, L and Casero-Ripolles, A. DIGITAL NEGATIVITY AS A CAMPAIGN COMMUNICATION STRATEGY IN THE 2021 COMMUNITY OF MADRID ELECTIONS ON TWITTER Prisma Social, 2022.

https://doi.org/10.2545/revist.8748

Barroso-Moreno, C; Rayon-Rumayor, L and Garcia-Vera, AB. Big Data and Business Intelligence on Twitter and Instagram for digital inclusion Barroso-Moreno, C; Rayon-Rumayor, L and Garcia-Vera, AB Comunicar, 2023.

https://doi.org/10.3916/C74-2023-04

Perez-Curiel, C; Dominguez-Garcia, R and Velasco-Molpeceres, A. Exploring the Political Debate over the COVID-19 Vaccination on Twitter: Emotions and Polarization in the Spanish Public Sphere SOCIAL SCIENCES-BASEL, 2023.

https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci12020085

Blanco-Alfonso, I; Rodriguez-Fernandez, L and Arce-Garcia, S. Polarization and hate speech with gender bias associated with politics: analysis of interactions on Twitter REVISTA DE COMUNICACION-PERU, 2022.

https://doi.org/10.26441/RC21.2-2022-A2

Martin, ED and Valentin, LD. Sentiment analysis methods for politics and hate speech contents in Spanish language: a systematic review IEEE LATIN AMERICA TRANSACTIONS, 2023.

https://doi.org/10.1109/TLA.2023.10068844

Li, Q; Liu, Q; (...); Zhang, HZ. Influence of social bots in information warfare: A case study on @UAWeapons Twitter account in the context of Russia-Ukraine conflict COMMUNICATION AND THE PUBLIC, 2023.

https://doi.org/10.1177/20570473231166157

Citas en Scopus

Blanco-Alfonso, I., Rodríguez-Fernández, L., Arce-García, S.. Polarization and hate speech with gender bias associated with politics: analysis of interactions on Twitter ), Revista de Comunicacion, .

https://doi.org/10.26441/RC21.2-2022-A2

Barroso-Moreno, C., Rayon-Rumayor, L., García-Vera, A.B. . Big Data and Business Intelligence on Twitter and Instagram for digital inclusion), Comunicar, .

https://doi.org/10.3916/C74-2023-04

Moret-Soler, D., Alonso-Muñoz, L., Casero-Ripollés, A. . LA NEGATIVIDAD DIGITAL COMO ESTRATEGIA DE CAMPAÑA EN LAS ELECCIONES DE LA COMUNIDAD DE MADRID DE 2021 EN TWITTER), Prisma Social, .

Link Google Scholar

Del Valle, E., De La Fuente, L. . Sentiment analysis methods for politics and hate speech contents in Spanish language: a systematic review ), IEEE Latin America Transactions, .

https://doi.org/10.1109/TLA.2023.10068844

Costa, S., Tavares, M., Bidarra, J., da Silva, B.M.. IN[The Hate Booth]: a Gamified Installation to Counteract Hate Speech), Lecture Notes of the Institute for Computer Sciences, Social-Informatics and Telecommunications Engineering, LNICST, .

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-28993-4_12

Pérez-Curiel, C., Domínguez-García, R., Velasco-Molpeceres, A.. Exploring the Political Debate over the COVID-19 Vaccination on Twitter: Emotions and Polarization in the Spanish Public Sphere), Social Sciences, .

https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci12020085

Li, Q., Liu, Q., Liu, S., (...), Chen, S., Zhang, H.. Influence of social bots in information warfare: A case study on @UAWeapons Twitter account in the context of Russia–Ukraine conflict ), Communication and the Public, .

https://doi.org/10.1177/20570473231166157

Citas en Google Scholar

Liderazgo y polarización como identidad del partido político. Análisis de la comunicación política en la crisis interna del Partido Popular en 2022 JC Rienda Velasco - 2022 - idus.us.es

https://idus.us.es/handle/11441/136677

Polarización y discurso de odio con sesgo de género asociado a la política: análisis de las interacciones en Twitter I Blanco-Alfonso… - Revista de …, 2022 - revistadecomunicacion.com

https://revistadecomunicacion.com/article/view/2918

Big Data y Business Intelligence en Twitter e Instagram para la inclusión digital C Barroso-Moreno, L Rayon-Rumayor… - … de Comunicación y …, 2023 - revistacomunicar.com

https://www.revistacomunicar.com/index.php?contenido=detalles&numero=74&articulo=74-2023-04

Prevalencia de los discursos de odio entre los futuros docentes: un estudio de caso M Jiménez-Delgado, P de-Gracia-Soriano… - 2022 - rua.ua.es

https://rua.ua.es/dspace/handle/10045/128826

Exploring the Political Debate over the COVID-19 Vaccination on Twitter: Emotions and Polarization in the Spanish Public Sphere C Pérez-Curiel, R Domínguez-García… - Social Sciences, 2023 - mdpi.com

https://www.mdpi.com/2076-0760/12/2/85

La investigación educativa como didáctica en la enseñanza de la posverdad. Análisis de contextos AN Masegosa - Revista de Propuestas Educativas, 2023 - propuestaseducativas.org

https://propuestaseducativas.org/index.php/propuestas/article/view/1000

La negatividad digital como estrategia de campaña en las elecciones de la Comunidad de Madrid de 2021 en Twitter DM Soler, L Alonso-Muñoz… - Revista Prisma …, 2022 - revistaprismasocial.es

https://revistaprismasocial.es/article/view/4860

Sentiment analysis methods for politics and hate speech contents in Spanish language: a systematic review E del Valle, L de la Fuente - IEEE Latin America Transactions, 2023 - latamt.ieeer9.org

COMUNICACIÓN, PERIODISMO Y POLÍTICA CDEM DE - researchgate.net

...

Descarga

Métricas alternativas

Cómo citar

Robles, J., Guevara, J., Casas-Mas, B., & Gómez, D. (2022). When negativity is the fuel. Bots and Political Polarization in the COVID-19 debate. [Cuando la negatividad es el combustible. Bots y polarización política en el debate sobre el COVID-19]. Comunicar, 71, 63-75. https://doi.org/10.3916/C71-2022-05

Compartir

           

Oxbridge Publishing House

4 White House Way

B91 1SE Sollihul Reino Unido

Administración

Redacción

Creative Commons

Esta web utiliza cookies para obtener datos estadísticos de la navegación de sus usuarios. Si continúas navegando consideramos que aceptas su uso. +info X