Keywords
Public sphere, YouTube, cyberpolitics, deep learning, polarisation, COVID-19
Abstract
Social media has significantly transformed how political discussions and deliberations occur, mainly by providing a digital realm for the public sphere. This study aims to analyse the extent of polarised opinions across Spain, Italy and the United Kingdom regarding COVID-19 during 2020 within social media. To do this, we examined YouTube comments (n=111,808) using automatic analysis and machine-learning techniques based on algorithms. This methodological strategy denoted an innovative and unique quantitative approach for this field of study. In line with previous research, the hypothesis was that the degree of polarization does not crystallize in the same manner in different countries’ digital spheres. Therefore, it could be said that higher levels of polarization occur amongst Southern European countries like Spain and Italy (both countries adhering to a polarised pluralism model), compared to other countries ascribing to the liberal model (the United Kingdom in our study), which provides evidence supporting previous research studies. The results confirmed the hypothesis that the polarization of digital deliberation between Spain and Italy is higher than in the United Kingdom. But, also, the findings based on more disaggregated analysis suggest that the most polarized attitudes are even rewarded by other users in Mediterranean countries.
References
Link DOI | Link Google Scholar
Link DOI | Link Google Scholar
Link DOI | Link Google Scholar
Link DOI | Link Google Scholar
Berry, C., Kim, S., & Spigel, L. (2010). Electronic elsewheres: Media technology and the experience of social space. University of Minnesota Press. https://bit.ly/33AbcKO
Link DOI | Link Google Scholar
Link DOI | Link Google Scholar
Link DOI | Link Google Scholar
Link DOI | Link Google Scholar
Bruns, A. (2008). Blogs, Wikipedia second life, and beyond: from production to produsage. Peter Lang.
Conover, M., Ratkiewicz, J., Francisco, M., Gonçalves, B., Menczer, F., & Flammini, A. (2011). Political polarization on twitter. In N. Nicolov & J.G. Shanahan (Eds.), Proceedings of the International AAAI Conference on Web and Social Media (pp. 89-96). The AAAI Press. https://bit.ly/3bxioeB
Dahlberg, L. (2004). The Habermasian public sphere: A specification of the idealized conditions of democratic communication. Studies in Social and Political Thought, 10, 2-18. https://bit.ly/2Nr1BBU
Davis, A. (2019). Political communication: A new introduction for crisis times. Polity. https://bit.ly/3o85j17
Demsar, J., Curk, T., Erjavec, A., Gorup, C., Hocevar, T., Milutinovic, M., Mozina, M., Polajnar, M., Toplak, M., Staric, A., Stajdohar, M., Umek, L., Zagar, L., Zbontar, J., Zitnik, M., & Zupan, B. (2013). Orange: Data mining toolbox. Python. The Journal of machine Learning research, 14(1), 2349-2353. https://bit.ly/3pMIPBR
Dougan, M., & Smith, A. (2016). The political environment on social media. Pew Research Center. https://pewrsr.ch/2NyZWdh
Link DOI | Link Google Scholar
Link DOI | Link Google Scholar
Fletcher, R., & Jenkins, J. (2019). Polarisation and the news media in Europe. European Parliamentary Research Service. https://bit.ly/2ZKKpcQ
Link DOI | Link Google Scholar
Fuchs, C. (2017). Social media. A critical introduction. Sage. https://bit.ly/3tDtDsD
Link DOI | Link Google Scholar
Link DOI | Link Google Scholar
Gidron, N., Adams, J., & Horne, W. (2019). How ideology, economics and institutions shape affective polarization in democratic polities. [Conference]. Annual Conference of the American Political Science Association, Washington DC, United States. https://bit.ly/3aJkmJx
Link DOI | Link Google Scholar
Link DOI | Link Google Scholar
Link DOI | Link Google Scholar
Link DOI | Link Google Scholar
Link DOI | Link Google Scholar
Link DOI | Link Google Scholar
Link DOI | Link Google Scholar
López-García, G. (2005). Modelos de comunicación en Internet. Tirant Lo Blanch.
Margetts, H. (2009). Public management change and e-government: The emergence of digital-era governance. In A. Chadwick, & P.N. Howard (Eds.), The Routledge Handbook of Internet Politics (pp. 119-131). Routledge. https://bit.ly/3bkxQeI
Link DOI | Link Google Scholar
Link DOI | Link Google Scholar
Morlino, L., & Sorice, M. (2021). Quello che abbiamo appreso. In Idd. L’illusione della scelta. Come si manipola l’opinione pubblica in Italia. Luiss University Press.
Link DOI | Link Google Scholar
Link DOI | Link Google Scholar
Link DOI | Link Google Scholar
Link DOI | Link Google Scholar
Link DOI | Link Google Scholar
Link DOI | Link Google Scholar
Rubio, R. (2000). Internet en la participación política. Revista de Estudios Políticos, 19, 285-302. https://bit.ly/3unSTVv
Scheufele, D.A. (2001). Democracy for some? How political talk both informs and polarizes the electorate. In R.P. Hart, & D. Shaw (Eds.), Communication and U.S. elections: New agendas (pp. 19-32). Rowman and Littlefield.
Link DOI | Link Google Scholar
Link DOI | Link Google Scholar
Link DOI | Link Google Scholar
Link DOI | Link Google Scholar
Link DOI | Link Google Scholar
Sunstein, C.R. (2008). Republic.com 2.0. Princeton University Press. https://bit.ly/3vZ7R4b
Link DOI | Link Google Scholar
Link DOI | Link Google Scholar
Link DOI | Link Google Scholar
Volkmer, I. (2014). The global public sphere: Public communication in the age of reflective interdependence. Polity.
Fundref
Technical information
Received: 25-01-2021
Revised: 20-03-2021
Accepted: 26-04-2021
OnlineFirst: 15-06-2021
Publication date: 01-10-2021
Article revision time: 54 days | Average time revision issue 69: 30 days
Article acceptance time: 91 days | Average time of acceptance issue 69: 69 days
Preprint editing time: 204 days | Average editing time preprint issue 69: 181 days
Article editing time: 249 days | Average editing time issue 69: 226 days
Metrics
Metrics of this article
Views: 37430
Abstract readings: 34042
PDF downloads: 3388
Full metrics of Comunicar 69
Views: 330305
Abstract readings: 294334
PDF downloads: 35971
Cited by
Cites in Web of Science
Robles, Jose-Manuel; Guevara, Juan-Antonio; Casas-Mas, Belen; Gomez, Daniel; . When negativity is the fuel. Bots and Political Polarization in the COVID-19 debate The disappearing center, 2022.
https://doi.org/10.3916/C71-2022-05
Moreno-Mercado, JM; Garcia-Marin, J and Luengo, OG. Armed conflicts and the construction of narratives on Twitter. The case of the war between Armenia andAzerbaijan REVISTA ESPANOLA DE CIENCIA POLITICA-RECP, 2022.
https://doi.org/10.21308/recp.59.04
Rodriguez, LM. Users' participation forms on the digital press. Cubadebate as case study CUADERNOS INFO, 2022.
https://doi.org/10.7764/cdi.52.31283
Soto, MAR. STATE OF THE ART OF GOVERNMENT COMMUNICATION IN THE AGE OF SOCIAL MEDIA OPERA-COLOMBIA, 2023.
https://doi.org/10.18601/16578651.n32.06
Moret-Soler, D; Alonso-Munoz, L and Casero-Ripolles, A. DIGITAL NEGATIVITY AS A CAMPAIGN COMMUNICATION STRATEGY IN THE 2021 COMMUNITY OF MADRID ELECTIONS ON TWITTER Prisma Social, 2022.
https://doi.org/10.2545/revist.8748
Garcia-Marin, J and Serrano-Contreras, IJ. (Un)founded fear towards the algorithm: YouTube recommendations and polarisation Comunicar, 2023.
Cites in Scopus
Robles, J.-M., Guevara, J.-A., Casas-Mas, B., Gömez, D. . When negativity is the fuel. Bots and Political Polarization in the COVID-19 debate | [Cuando la negatividad es el combustible. Bots y polarización política en el debate sobre el COVID-19]), Comunicar, .
https://doi.org/10.3916/C71-2022-05
Moreno-Mercado, J.M., García-Marín, J., Luengo, Ó.G.. Armed conflicts and the construction of narratives on Twitter. The case of the war between Armenia and Azerbaijan), Revista Espanola de Ciencia Politica, .
https://doi.org/10.21308/recp.59.04
Rodríguez, L.M.. Users’ participation forms on the digital press. Cubadebate as case study), Cuadernos.info, .
https://doi.org/10.7764/cdi.52.31283
García-Marín, J., Serrano-Contreras, I.-J. . (Un)founded fear towards the algorithm: YouTube recommendations and polarisation ), Comunicar, .
https://doi.org/10.3916/C74-2023-05
Moret-Soler, D., Alonso-Muñoz, L., Casero-Ripollés, A. . LA NEGATIVIDAD DIGITAL COMO ESTRATEGIA DE CAMPAÑA EN LAS ELECCIONES DE LA COMUNIDAD DE MADRID DE 2021 EN TWITTER), Prisma Social, .
Cites in Google Scholar
Robles, J. M., Guevara, J. A., Casas-Mas, B., & Gómez, D. (2022). When negativity is the fuel. Bots and Political Polarization in the COVID-19 debate. Comunicar, 30(71), 63-75.
http://eprints.rclis.org/42973/
Robles, J. M., Guevara, J. A., Casas-Mas, B., & Gómez, D. (2022). Cuando la negatividad es el combustible. Bots y polarización política en el debate sobre el COVID-19. Comunicar: Revista Científica de Comunicación y Educación, 30(71).
Arévalo-Martínez, R. I., Flores, R. D. P., & Cuevas, G. E. G. (2021). Comunicación presidencial sobre la COVID-19 vía Twitter: México, España y Estados Unidos. Global Media Journal México, 18(35), 151-175.
https://gmjmexico.uanl.mx/index.php/GMJ_EI/article/view/457
Robles, J. M., Guevara, J. A., Casas-Mas, B., & Gómez, D. (2022). Cuando la negatividad es el combustible. Bots y polarización política en el debate sobre el COVID-19. Comunicar, 30(71), 63-75.
https://www.revistacomunicar.com/ojs/index.php/comunicar/article/view/C71-2022-05
Castillo-González, M. C., del Campo, A. M., & Martínez-López, C. (2022). Participación y conversación política en YouTube:# Ayotzinapa,# MichaelBrown y# BlackLivesMatter. Virtualis, 13(24), 30-57.
https://www.revistavirtualis.mx/index.php/virtualis/article/view/402
Rodríguez, L. M. (2022). Formas de participación de los usuarios de la prensa digital. Cubadebate como caso de estudio. Cuadernos. info, (52), 160-180.
http://rchd.uc.cl/index.php/cdi/article/view/31283
Mercado, J. M. M., Marín, J. G., & Luengo, Ó. G. (2022). Conflictos armados y la construcción de narrativas a través de Twitter. El caso de la guerra entre Armenia y Azerbaiyán. Revista española de ciencia política, (59), 89-114.
https://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/articulo?codigo=8528410
PLEGUEZUELOS, C. T. Persuadir e informar.
García, A. M., Buitrago, Á., & Flandoli, A. M. B. (2022). Fútbol, racismo y Twitter. Disección del discurso del odio en el caso Diakhaby. Razón y Palabra, 26(113).
https://www.revistarazonypalabra.org/index.php/ryp/article/view/1896
La negatividad digital como estrategia de campaña en las elecciones de la Comunidad de Madrid de 2021 en Twitter DM Soler, L Alonso-Muñoz… - Revista Prisma …, 2022 - revistaprismasocial.es
https://revistaprismasocial.es/article/view/4860
Miedo (in) fundado al algoritmo: Las recomendaciones de YouTube y la polarización J García-Marín… - … : Revista Científica de …, 2023 - revistacomunicar.com
https://www.revistacomunicar.com/index.php?contenido=detalles&numero=74&articulo=74-2023-05
Estado del arte de la comunicación de gobierno en tiempos de medios sociales (State of the Art of Government Communication in the Age of Social Media) MA Ruiz Soto - 2023 - papers.ssrn.com
Alternative metrics
How to cite
Luengo, O., García-Marín, J., & de-Blasio, E. (2021). COVID-19 on YouTube: Debates and polarisation in the digital sphere. [COVID-19 en YouTube: Debates y polarización en la esfera digital]. Comunicar, 69, 9-19. https://doi.org/10.3916/C69-2021-01